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abacus school
''Abacus'' or ''abaco'' refers to calculations, especially the subject of direct calculations, using Hindu numerals without the help of the abacus (an instrument for calculating).〔Leonardo Fibonacci. “Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci: Leonardo Pisano’s Book of Calculation”. Contributor Laurence Edward Sigler. (). Springer. 2003. Page 4.〕 Abacus school is a term applied to any Italian school or tutorial after the 13th century, whose commerce-directed curriculum placed special emphasis on mathematics, such as algebra, among other subjects.〔Michael of Rhodes Project Team, Dibner Institute, and WGBH Interactive. ("Abacus School". Glossary. ) Michael of Rhodes. Institute and Museum of the History of Science. 2005. Sunday, March 23, 2008.〕 These schools sprang after the publication of Fibonacci’s ''Book of the Abacus'' and his introduction of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. In Fibonacci’s viewpoint, this system, originating in India around 400 BC. and later adopted by the Arabs, was simpler and more practical than using the existing Roman numeric tradition. Italian merchants and traders quickly adopted the structure as a means of producing accountants, clerks, and so on, and subsequently abacus schools for students were established.〔Michael of Rhodes Project Team, Dibner Institute, and WGBH Interactive. ("Mathematics: The Abacus Tradition". ) A Mariner's Knowledge. Michael of Rhodes. Institute and Museum of the History of Science. 2005. Sunday, March 23, 2008.〕 These were done in many ways: communes could appeal to patrons to support the institution and find masters; religious institutions could finance and oversee the curriculum; independent masters could teach pupils. Unless they were selected for teaching occupations that were salaried, most masters taught students who could pay as this was their main source of income.〔Grendler, 1989, Page 5.〕
== Significance ==
Abacus schools were significant for a couple of reasons:
Firstly, because mathematics was associated with many professions, including trade,〔Grendler, 1989, Page 22.〕 there was an increasing need to do away with the old Roman numeral system which produced too many errors.〔Robert M. Yerkes. “The Use of Roman Numerals”. Science. New series. Vol. 20. No. 505. American Association for the Advancement of Science. September 2, 1904. Pages 309-310.〕 The number of Roman characters a merchant needed to memorize to carry out financial transactions as opposed to Hindu-numerals made the switch practical. Commercialists were first introduced to this new system through Leonardo Fibonacci, who came from a business family and had studied Arabic math. Being convinced of its uses, abacus schools were therefore created and dominated by wealthy merchants, with some exceptions.〔〔Hans Baron. “The Social Background of Political Liberty in the Early Italian Renaissance”. Comparative Studies in Society and History. Vol. 2. No. 4. Cambridge University Press. July 1960. Page 440.〕 Sons could now be trained by the best and brightest teachers to take over their family business and the fortunate poor had more access to a variety of vocations.〔Grendler, 1989, Page 104.〕 Morality also played a role in determining the school attendance of commoners.〔Grendler, 1989, Page 13.〕
Secondly, reading, writing, and some elementary math as job requirements for general occupations〔Grendler, 1989, Page 12.〕 meant that literacy levels rose with the number of ordinary students attending institutions or being tutored at home. Sailors, for example, who wished to climb the social ladder had to present literacy and arithmetic skills on their résumé.〔Michael of Rhodes Project Team, Dibner Institute, and WGBH Interactive. ("Michael's Life". ) Michael of Rhodes. Institute and Museum of the History of Science. 2005. Sunday, March 23, 2008.〕 Aspiring abbaco masters themselves need have studied only elementary, or secondary abbaco in order to teach others.〔Grendler, 1989, Page 36.〕
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